FREE PREVIEW Week 4 3 lessons

The 21st-Century World

Major global events since 2000: terrorism and its aftermath, the 2008 financial crisis, the rise of China, the Arab Spring, Brexit, climate agreements, the COVID-19 pandemic and the wars in Ukraine and Gaza, explained factually.

Lessons in this module

Terror, Financial Crisis and a Changing Balance of Power

Lesson • 5 quiz questions

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Arab Spring, Brexit and the Fight Against Climate Change

Lesson • 5 quiz questions

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COVID-19 and the Wars in Ukraine and Gaza

Lesson • 5 quiz questions

Read notes ↓

Lesson notes

1. Terror, Financial Crisis and a Changing Balance of Power

The 21st century opened with a terrorist attack that changed global security, a financial crisis that shook the world economy, and the steady rise of China as a major economic power. This lesson covers the key facts exams ask.

9/11 and after

On 11 September 2001 the terrorist group al-Qaeda hijacked four planes and attacked the World Trade Center in New York and the Pentagon near Washington. Nearly 3,000 people were killed.
NATO invoked Article 5 (collective defence) for the first time; it remains the only time so far.
A US-led coalition entered Afghanistan in October 2001 and removed the Taliban government. In 2003 a US-led coalition invaded Iraq and removed Saddam Hussein.
Osama bin Laden was killed by US forces in Abbottabad, Pakistan, in May 2011.
US and NATO forces left Afghanistan in August 2021, and the Taliban returned to power in Kabul.

The 2008 global financial crisis

It started in the US housing market, where many risky ('subprime') home loans had been given and then bundled into complex financial products.
The US investment bank Lehman Brothers filed for bankruptcy on 15 September 2008, the largest bankruptcy in US history.
The crisis spread to banks and economies worldwide, causing the 'Great Recession'.
The G20 held its first leaders' summit in Washington in November 2008 to coordinate the response.
India was affected less than many countries, partly because of its regulated banking system.

The rise of China

Deng Xiaoping began economic reforms and 'opening up' in 1978.
China joined the WTO in December 2001 and became the 'factory of the world'.
In 2010 China overtook Japan to become the world's second-largest economy (in nominal terms).
Xi Jinping became leader in 2012–13 and launched the Belt and Road Initiative (BRI) in 2013. India has not joined the BRI and has objected that its China-Pakistan Economic Corridor passes through Pakistan-administered territory that India claims.
In 2023, UN population estimates showed India overtaking China as the world's most populous country.

Quick facts

9/11 attacks: 11 September 2001, by al-Qaeda
NATO Article 5: Invoked only once, after 9/11
Iraq war begins: 2003
Lehman Brothers bankruptcy: 15 September 2008
First G20 leaders' summit: Washington, November 2008
China's reforms begin: 1978, Deng Xiaoping
China joins WTO: December 2001
Belt and Road Initiative: 2013, Xi Jinping

💡 2001 is a double year for exams: the 9/11 attacks (September) and China joining the WTO (December). The SCO was also founded in 2001.

📝 5-question quiz on this lesson: enrol free to take it and track your score.

2. Arab Spring, Brexit and the Fight Against Climate Change

The 2010s brought popular uprisings in the Arab world, a historic decision by the United Kingdom to leave the European Union, and the Paris Agreement, the main global treaty on climate change. Each is a common exam topic.

The Arab Spring

A wave of protests against authoritarian governments across the Arab world from late 2010.
It began in Tunisia after a street vendor, Mohamed Bouazizi, set himself on fire in December 2010. President Ben Ali fled in January 2011.
In Egypt, President Hosni Mubarak resigned in February 2011 after mass protests in Cairo's Tahrir Square.
In Libya, an uprising and NATO-led air strikes (authorised by the UN Security Council) ended Muammar Gaddafi's rule; he was killed in October 2011.
In Syria, protests turned into a long civil war from 2011; President Bashar al-Assad's government fell in December 2024. Yemen also entered a civil war.
Outcomes were mixed: Tunisia saw a democratic transition for some years, while several countries faced conflict and instability.

Brexit

In a referendum on 23 June 2016, 51.9% of UK voters chose to leave the European Union.
The UK began the exit process under Article 50 of the Treaty on European Union in March 2017.
The UK formally left the EU on 31 January 2020; the transition period ended on 31 December 2020.
The EU now has 27 members. Supporters of Brexit stressed sovereignty and control of borders; opponents stressed the economic benefits of EU membership.

Climate agreements and COPs

The UN Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) was adopted in 1992 (Rio Earth Summit). Its annual meetings are called COPs (Conferences of the Parties).
The Kyoto Protocol (1997) set binding emission targets only for developed countries.
The Paris Agreement was adopted at COP21 in December 2015 and came into force on 4 November 2016. Goal: keep warming well below 2°C and try to limit it to 1.5°C. Each country sets its own targets, called Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs).
India and France launched the International Solar Alliance at COP21; its headquarters is in Gurugram, India. At COP26 (Glasgow, 2021) India announced a net-zero target for 2070.
COP27 (Sharm el-Sheikh, 2022) agreed a 'loss and damage' fund; COP28 (Dubai, 2023) held the first global stocktake; COP29 (Baku, 2024) set a new climate finance goal; COP30 was held in Belém, Brazil (2025).
COP31 is scheduled for Antalya, Türkiye (9–20 November 2026), with Türkiye holding the COP Presidency and Australia acting as 'President of Negotiations'. The USA's withdrawal from the Paris Agreement took effect on 27 January 2026.

Quick facts

Arab Spring begins: Tunisia, December 2010
Hosni Mubarak resigns: February 2011 (Egypt)
Brexit referendum: 23 June 2016 (51.9% Leave)
UK leaves the EU: 31 January 2020
UNFCCC: 1992, Rio Earth Summit
Kyoto Protocol: 1997
Paris Agreement: Adopted at COP21, Dec 2015; in force 4 Nov 2016
India's net-zero target: 2070 (announced at COP26, Glasgow)
International Solar Alliance: India and France, 2015; HQ Gurugram

💡 Remember the COP order with places: 21 Paris, 26 Glasgow, 27 Sharm el-Sheikh, 28 Dubai, 29 Baku, 30 Belém, 31 Antalya.

📝 5-question quiz on this lesson: enrol free to take it and track your score.

3. COVID-19 and the Wars in Ukraine and Gaza

The 2020s began with a global pandemic and then two major wars that dominate international news. Exams ask for dates, key events and India's position. This lesson gives facts and the positions of each side, without taking sides.

The COVID-19 pandemic

COVID-19 is caused by the SARS-CoV-2 coronavirus. The first cases were reported in Wuhan, China, in December 2019.
WHO declared a Public Health Emergency of International Concern on 30 January 2020 and described the outbreak as a pandemic on 11 March 2020.
India announced a nationwide lockdown from 25 March 2020 and began vaccination on 16 January 2021. Under 'Vaccine Maitri' it supplied vaccines to other countries.
COVAX was a global effort to share vaccines fairly.
WHO declared the end of COVID-19 as a global health emergency on 5 May 2023. Member states adopted a WHO Pandemic Agreement in May 2025.

The Russia–Ukraine war

Ukraine became independent when the USSR dissolved in 1991.
In 2014 Russia annexed Crimea after a referendum that Ukraine and the UN General Assembly (by majority vote) did not recognise; fighting also began in eastern Ukraine (Donbas).
On 24 February 2022 Russia launched a full-scale military attack on Ukraine. Russia calls it a 'special military operation'; Ukraine and most Western countries call it an invasion.
In March 2022 the UN General Assembly demanded that Russia withdraw (141 votes in favour). India abstained, calling for dialogue and diplomacy and for respect of the UN Charter and territorial integrity.
The war led Finland (2023) and Sweden (2024) to join NATO, which now has 32 members. As of October 2026 fighting continued and no ceasefire had been agreed, although US-mediated talks were held at times during 2026.

The Israel–Hamas war

On 7 October 2023 Hamas and other armed groups attacked southern Israel from Gaza. Israeli authorities say about 1,200 people were killed and around 250 were taken hostage.
Israel then began a large military campaign in Gaza. Gaza's health ministry reported tens of thousands of Palestinian deaths; UN agencies described a severe humanitarian crisis.
In December 2023 South Africa filed a case against Israel at the International Court of Justice under the Genocide Convention; Israel rejects the allegation. The case was still pending in 2026; the Court's timetable for written pleadings runs into 2029.
A ceasefire under a US-brokered plan took effect on 10 October 2025, with an exchange of hostages and Palestinian prisoners. It remained fragile in 2026, with continued violence and accusations of violations from both sides.
India condemned the 7 October attacks as terrorism, called for humanitarian aid and a ceasefire, and supports a negotiated two-state solution.

Quick facts

COVID-19 first reported: Wuhan, China, December 2019
WHO declares pandemic: 11 March 2020
COVID-19 global emergency ends: 5 May 2023
Russia annexes Crimea: 2014
Russia's full-scale attack on Ukraine: 24 February 2022
NATO new members: Finland 2023, Sweden 2024: total 32
Hamas-led attack on Israel: 7 October 2023
Gaza ceasefire takes effect: 10 October 2025

💡 Keep conflict answers factual: learn dates, places and official positions, and note who says what. Exams test facts, not opinions.

📝 5-question quiz on this lesson: enrol free to take it and track your score.

Other modules in General Knowledge: India & the World, The Story So Far

Ancient IndiaFREE PREVIEW → Medieval IndiaFREE PREVIEW → Colonial Rule and the Freedom StruggleFREE PREVIEW → The Constitution of IndiaFREE PREVIEW → How India Is GovernedFREE PREVIEW → India's Economic Journey and PoliciesFREE PREVIEW → Post-Independence Milestones and PolicyFREE PREVIEW → Revolutions & the Modern WorldFREE PREVIEW → World Wars & the Cold WarFREE PREVIEW → The United Nations & International OrganisationsFREE PREVIEW → World Geography & Facts for ExamsFREE PREVIEW → Final AssessmentFREE PREVIEW →

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