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FREE PREVIEW Week 4-5 3 lessons

Post-Independence Milestones and Policy

Wars and nuclear tests, the Emergency, linguistic states and the making of Karnataka, India's prime ministers, the space programme, and rights-based laws such as RTI, RTE and NEP 2020.

Lessons in this module

1

Wars, Security and Nuclear Tests

Lesson • 5 quiz questions

Read notes ↓
2

The Emergency, Linguistic States and India's Prime Ministers

Lesson • 5 quiz questions

Read notes ↓
3

Space Programme and Rights-Based Laws

Lesson • 5 quiz questions

Read notes ↓

Lesson notes

1. Wars, Security and Nuclear Tests

Since 1947 India has fought wars with Pakistan and China and become a nuclear-weapon state. Exams ask about dates, operations, agreements and the leaders involved.

Wars with Pakistan and China

  • 1947-48: after raiders entered Kashmir, Maharaja Hari Singh signed the Instrument of Accession (26 October 1947); a UN-mediated ceasefire came on 1 January 1949.
  • 1962: the war with China (October-November) was fought in Aksai Chin and the then NEFA (now Arunachal Pradesh); China declared a ceasefire on 21 November 1962.
  • 1965: India-Pakistan war; it ended with the Tashkent Declaration (January 1966). PM Lal Bahadur Shastri, who gave the slogan 'Jai Jawan Jai Kisan', died in Tashkent.
  • 1971: the war (3-16 December) led to the creation of Bangladesh; about 93,000 Pakistani soldiers surrendered. 16 December is Vijay Diwas. The Simla Agreement followed in 1972.
  • 1999: Kargil war (Operation Vijay), May-July; 26 July is Kargil Vijay Diwas.
  • 2025: after the terror attack at Pahalgam (22 April), India carried out strikes under 'Operation Sindoor' on 7 May; both sides agreed to stop military action on 10 May 2025.

Nuclear tests and doctrine

  • Homi J. Bhabha led the early nuclear programme; the Atomic Energy Commission was set up in 1948.
  • First test: 18 May 1974 at Pokhran, Rajasthan, code-named 'Smiling Buddha'; India called it a 'peaceful nuclear explosion'.
  • Pokhran-II: five tests on 11 and 13 May 1998 (Operation Shakti); 11 May is National Technology Day.
  • India follows a 'no first use' policy and keeps a 'credible minimum deterrent'; its nuclear doctrine was made public in 2003.
  • India has not signed the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT) or the Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty (CTBT).

Diplomacy linked to conflicts

  • Panchsheel (1954): five principles of peaceful coexistence agreed between India and China.
  • Non-Aligned Movement: India, under Nehru, was a founding member (Belgrade summit, 1961).
  • Indo-Soviet Treaty of Peace, Friendship and Cooperation: August 1971.
  • Simla Agreement (2 July 1972): Indira Gandhi and Z. A. Bhutto agreed to settle issues bilaterally.
  • Lahore Declaration (February 1999): signed by A. B. Vajpayee and Nawaz Sharif, a few months before Kargil.
Quick facts
J&K accession
26 Oct 1947
War with China
1962
Tashkent Declaration
January 1966
Bangladesh war
Dec 1971, Vijay Diwas 16 Dec
Simla Agreement
2 July 1972
Kargil Vijay Diwas
26 July (1999)
Pokhran-I
18 May 1974, Smiling Buddha
Pokhran-II
11 and 13 May 1998, Operation Shakti
Operation Sindoor
7 May 2025
Panchsheel
1954

💡 Pair each war with its agreement: 1965 - Tashkent, 1971 - Simla, 1999 Kargil - after the Lahore Declaration.

📝 5-question quiz on this lesson: enrol free to take it and track your score.

2. The Emergency, Linguistic States and India's Prime Ministers

India's democracy faced its biggest test during the Emergency of 1975-77. The map of India was redrawn on linguistic lines, which created today's Karnataka. This lesson ends with the list of prime ministers.

The Emergency (1975-77)

  • On 12 June 1975 the Allahabad High Court set aside PM Indira Gandhi's 1971 election, in a case filed by Raj Narain.
  • On 25 June 1975 President Fakhruddin Ali Ahmed proclaimed a national emergency under Article 352 on the ground of 'internal disturbance'.
  • Fundamental Rights were suspended, opposition leaders were detained, the press was censored and elections were postponed.
  • The government of the time argued that it was needed to maintain order and stability; critics, including many opposition leaders and later the Shah Commission, described it as an abuse of power.
  • It ended on 21 March 1977. In the 1977 elections the Janata Party won, and Morarji Desai became the first non-Congress PM.
  • The 44th Amendment (1978) made it harder to declare an emergency: 'armed rebellion' replaced 'internal disturbance', and Articles 20 and 21 cannot be suspended.

Linguistic states and the making of Karnataka

  • Potti Sriramulu died after a hunger strike in December 1952; Andhra State was formed on 1 October 1953 as the first state on linguistic lines.
  • The States Reorganisation Commission (Fazl Ali, with K. M. Panikkar and H. N. Kunzru) led to the States Reorganisation Act 1956: 14 states and 6 union territories from 1 November 1956.
  • Kannada-speaking areas of Bombay, Madras and Hyderabad states and Coorg were joined to the old Mysore State on 1 November 1956, celebrated as Kannada Rajyotsava.
  • Aluru Venkata Rao, called 'Karnataka Kulapurohita', was a leading figure of the unification movement.
  • Mysore State was renamed Karnataka on 1 November 1973, when D. Devaraj Urs was Chief Minister.
  • Later states: Maharashtra and Gujarat (1960), Haryana (1966), Chhattisgarh, Uttarakhand and Jharkhand (2000), Telangana (2 June 2014).

Prime ministers in order

  • Jawaharlal Nehru (1947-64), Lal Bahadur Shastri (1964-66), Indira Gandhi (1966-77). Gulzarilal Nanda was acting PM twice.
  • Morarji Desai (1977-79), Charan Singh (1979-80), Indira Gandhi again (1980-84), Rajiv Gandhi (1984-89).
  • V. P. Singh (1989-90), Chandra Shekhar (1990-91), P. V. Narasimha Rao (1991-96).
  • Atal Bihari Vajpayee (13 days in 1996), H. D. Deve Gowda from Karnataka (1996-97), I. K. Gujral (1997-98), Vajpayee again (1998-2004).
  • Manmohan Singh (2004-14) and Narendra Modi (from 2014; third term from June 2024).
Quick facts
Emergency proclaimed
25 June 1975, Article 352
Emergency ended
21 March 1977
First non-Congress PM
Morarji Desai, 1977
First linguistic state
Andhra, 1 Oct 1953
States Reorganisation Act
1956
Kannada Rajyotsava
1 November (1956)
Renamed Karnataka
1 Nov 1973, D. Devaraj Urs
PM from Karnataka
H. D. Deve Gowda, 1996-97
Newest state
Telangana, 2014

💡 Kannada Rajyotsava (1 November) marks the 1956 unification; the name 'Karnataka' came only in 1973. Exams test both dates.

📝 5-question quiz on this lesson: enrol free to take it and track your score.

3. Space Programme and Rights-Based Laws

ISRO, headquartered in Bengaluru, has taken India from small sounding rockets to the Moon's south pole. Laws such as RTI and RTE and the National Education Policy 2020 changed how citizens deal with government and schools.

India in space

  • Vikram Sarabhai, father of the Indian space programme, set up INCOSPAR in 1962; the first rocket was launched from Thumba, Kerala, on 21 November 1963.
  • ISRO was founded on 15 August 1969. India's first satellite, Aryabhata, was launched on 19 April 1975 by a Soviet rocket.
  • Rakesh Sharma became the first Indian in space (1984). Chandrayaan-1 (2008) helped detect water molecules on the Moon.
  • Mangalyaan (Mars Orbiter Mission) reached Mars orbit on 24 September 2014, making India the first country to do so on its first attempt.
  • Chandrayaan-3's lander Vikram landed near the Moon's south pole on 23 August 2023 (now National Space Day); India was the first country to land there.
  • Aditya-L1 (2023) studies the Sun. In 2025 Shubhanshu Shukla became the first Indian to visit the International Space Station (Axiom-4 mission).

Right to Information Act 2005

  • Passed in 2005 and in force from 12 October 2005; it grew out of grassroots campaigns such as the Mazdoor Kisan Shakti Sangathan (MKSS) in Rajasthan.
  • Any citizen can ask a public authority for information; the reply is due within 30 days, or 48 hours if life or liberty is involved.
  • Appeals go to the Central and State Information Commissions.
  • In 2019 an amendment let the Union government set the term and salary of Information Commissioners. The government said this corrected anomalies; critics said it could weaken their independence.

Right to Education and NEP 2020

  • The 86th Amendment (2002) added Article 21A. The Right of Children to Free and Compulsory Education Act 2009 came into force on 1 April 2010.
  • It covers children aged 6 to 14 and requires private unaided schools to reserve 25% of entry-level seats for weaker and disadvantaged groups.
  • The National Education Policy 2020 (approved 29 July 2020) replaced the 1986 policy; the drafting committee was chaired by K. Kasturirangan, a former ISRO chief.
  • NEP 2020 replaces the 10+2 structure with 5+3+3+4, encourages teaching in the mother tongue or local language at least up to Grade 5, and aims for 50% gross enrolment in higher education by 2035.
  • Education is a Concurrent List subject, so states implement NEP differently; Karnataka set up its own State Education Policy Commission in 2023.
Quick facts
ISRO founded
15 August 1969
ISRO HQ
Bengaluru
Aryabhata
19 April 1975
Mangalyaan in orbit
24 Sept 2014
Chandrayaan-3 landing
23 Aug 2023, National Space Day
RTI Act in force
12 Oct 2005
RTI reply time
30 days; 48 hours for life/liberty
RTE Act in force
1 April 2010
NEP approved
29 July 2020, Kasturirangan committee
NEP school structure
5+3+3+4

💡 Space dates come up every year. Make a timeline from 1963 (Thumba) to 2023 (Chandrayaan-3) and revise it before the exam.

📝 5-question quiz on this lesson: enrol free to take it and track your score.

Other modules in General Knowledge: India & the World, The Story So Far

Ancient IndiaFREE PREVIEW → Medieval IndiaFREE PREVIEW → Colonial Rule and the Freedom StruggleFREE PREVIEW → The Constitution of IndiaFREE PREVIEW → How India Is GovernedFREE PREVIEW → India's Economic Journey and PoliciesFREE PREVIEW → Revolutions & the Modern WorldFREE PREVIEW → World Wars & the Cold WarFREE PREVIEW → The United Nations & International OrganisationsFREE PREVIEW → The 21st-Century WorldFREE PREVIEW → World Geography & Facts for ExamsFREE PREVIEW → Final AssessmentFREE PREVIEW →

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