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General Hindi

Hindi grammar (sandhi, samas, upsarg-pratyay, synonyms, opposites, idioms, sentence correction), Hindi literature basics and unseen passages.

Lessons in this module

1

Hindi Grammar: संधि, समास, शब्द भंडार और वाक्य शुद्धि

Lesson • 5 quiz questions

Read notes ↓
2

Hindi Literature, Jnanpith Winners and Unseen Passages

Lesson • 5 quiz questions

Read notes ↓

Lesson notes

1. Hindi Grammar: संधि, समास, शब्द भंडार और वाक्य शुद्धि

General Hindi questions in state exams come from a fixed set of grammar areas. Each question is short, so good practice gives quick marks. This lesson explains each area with standard examples. Learn the examples well, because the same words appear again and again.

संधि (Sandhi) and समास (Samas)

  • Sandhi joins two sounds. Swar sandhi (vowel): विद्या + आलय = विद्यालय (दीर्घ), सुर + इन्द्र = सुरेन्द्र (गुण), एक + एक = एकैक (वृद्धि), इति + आदि = इत्यादि (यण), ने + अन = नयन (अयादि).
  • Vyanjan sandhi (consonant): जगत् + ईश = जगदीश. Visarg sandhi: निः + चल = निश्चल, मनः + योग = मनोयोग.
  • Samas joins words into one. अव्ययीभाव: यथाशक्ति, प्रतिदिन. तत्पुरुष: राजपुत्र (राजा का पुत्र).
  • कर्मधारय: नीलकमल (नीला है जो कमल). द्विगु (number first): त्रिलोक, चौराहा. द्वंद्व: माता-पिता.
  • बहुव्रीहि points to a third person or thing: लंबोदर (गणेश), दशानन (रावण), पीतांबर (कृष्ण).

उपसर्ग, प्रत्यय, तत्सम-तद्भव

  • Upsarg (prefix) comes before a word and changes its meaning: हार से प्रहार, आहार, विहार, संहार. Common prefixes: अति, अनु, अप, अभि, उप, प्र, परा, सम्.
  • Pratyay (suffix) comes after a word: मानव + ता = मानवता, बच्चा + पन = बचपन, धर्म + इक = धार्मिक.
  • Tatsam words come unchanged from Sanskrit; tadbhav words are their changed, everyday forms.
  • Pairs (tatsam to tadbhav): अग्नि-आग, दुग्ध-दूध, हस्त-हाथ, ग्राम-गाँव, कर्म-काम, क्षेत्र-खेत, सूर्य-सूरज, मुख-मुँह.

पर्यायवाची, विलोम, मुहावरे और लोकोक्तियाँ

  • Paryayvachi (synonyms): जल: नीर, अंबु, तोय. सूर्य: रवि, दिनकर, भानु. कमल: पंकज, जलज, सरोज. पृथ्वी: धरा, वसुधा, भू.
  • Vilom (antonyms): आदि-अंत, आय-व्यय, उन्नति-अवनति, आस्तिक-नास्तिक, कृतज्ञ-कृतघ्न, सजीव-निर्जीव.
  • Muhavare (idioms): आँख का तारा (बहुत प्यारा), नौ दो ग्यारह होना (भाग जाना), दाँतों तले उँगली दबाना (आश्चर्य करना), ईद का चाँद होना (बहुत दिनों बाद दिखना).
  • Lokokti (proverbs): अधजल गगरी छलकत जाय (कम ज्ञान वाला अधिक दिखावा करता है), नाच न जाने आँगन टेढ़ा (अपनी कमी का दोष दूसरों पर डालना).
  • A muhavara is a phrase used inside a sentence; a lokokti is a complete saying that stands on its own.

वाक्य शुद्धि and वर्तनी (sentence and spelling correction)

  • अशुद्ध: मेरे को घर जाना है। शुद्ध: मुझे घर जाना है।
  • अशुद्ध: प्रत्येक छात्रों को पुस्तक मिली। शुद्ध: प्रत्येक छात्र को पुस्तक मिली। (प्रत्येक is followed by a singular noun.)
  • अशुद्ध: मैं आपका दर्शन करने आया हूँ। शुद्ध: मैं आपके दर्शन करने आया हूँ। (दर्शन is used in the plural.)
  • Correct spellings often tested: उज्ज्वल, आशीर्वाद, कवयित्री, अत्यधिक, सौंदर्य, प्रामाणिक.
  • Check three things in every sentence: gender and number agreement, the right postposition (ने, को, से), and extra or repeated words.
Quick facts
दीर्घ संधि
विद्या + आलय = विद्यालय
गुण संधि
सुर + इन्द्र = सुरेन्द्र
यण संधि
इति + आदि = इत्यादि
द्विगु समास
त्रिलोक, चौराहा
बहुव्रीहि समास
दशानन (रावण), लंबोदर (गणेश)
तत्सम-तद्भव
दुग्ध-दूध, हस्त-हाथ, क्षेत्र-खेत
कृतज्ञ का विलोम
कृतघ्न
नौ दो ग्यारह होना
भाग जाना

💡 Write 10 sandhi and 10 samas examples on a card and say them aloud daily. Exams mostly repeat these standard words.

📝 5-question quiz on this lesson: enrol free to take it and track your score.

2. Hindi Literature, Jnanpith Winners and Unseen Passages

Exams ask simple facts about major Hindi writers: which work belongs to whom, which period they belong to, and who won the Jnanpith Award. This lesson covers these facts and ends with a step-by-step method for unseen passages (अपठित गद्यांश).

Bhakti period poets (भक्तिकाल)

  • Acharya Ramchandra Shukla divided Hindi literary history into four periods: आदिकाल, भक्तिकाल, रीतिकाल and आधुनिक काल.
  • Kabir (कबीर): nirgun bhakti poet. His sayings (साखी, सबद, रमैनी) are collected in the बीजक.
  • Tulsidas (तुलसीदास): wrote रामचरितमानस in Awadhi, and also विनय पत्रिका, कवितावली and गीतावली.
  • Surdas (सूरदास): wrote सूरसागर in Braj Bhasha; famous for poems on the childhood of Krishna (vatsalya). He was a member of the अष्टछाप.
  • Malik Muhammad Jayasi (मलिक मुहम्मद जायसी): Sufi poet who wrote पद्मावत in Awadhi.

Modern writers

  • Bharatendu Harishchandra (भारतेन्दु हरिश्चंद्र) is called the father of modern Hindi literature. Plays: अंधेर नगरी, भारत दुर्दशा.
  • Premchand (प्रेमचंद, real name Dhanpat Rai): novels गोदान, गबन, निर्मला, सेवासदन, रंगभूमि, कर्मभूमि; stories कफ़न, ईदगाह, पूस की रात, पंच परमेश्वर.
  • The four pillars of Chhayavad (छायावाद): Jaishankar Prasad (कामायनी; plays स्कंदगुप्त, चंद्रगुप्त, ध्रुवस्वामिनी), Suryakant Tripathi 'Nirala' (राम की शक्ति पूजा, सरोज स्मृति), Sumitranandan Pant (पल्लव, चिदंबरा) and Mahadevi Verma (यामा, नीरजा, दीपशिखा).
  • Mahadevi Verma is called the 'modern Meera'. Maithilisharan Gupt is called the Rashtrakavi (भारत-भारती, साकेत).
  • Ramdhari Singh 'Dinkar': रश्मिरथी, कुरुक्षेत्र, उर्वशी. Harivansh Rai Bachchan: मधुशाला.

Hindi winners of the Jnanpith Award

  • Sumitranandan Pant (1968, for चिदंबरा) was the first Hindi writer to win it.
  • Ramdhari Singh 'Dinkar' (1972, उर्वशी), Agyeya (1978, कितनी नावों में कितनी बार), Mahadevi Verma (1982, यामा).
  • Naresh Mehta (1992), Nirmal Verma (1999), Kunwar Narayan (2005), Amarkant and Shrilal Shukla (both 2009).
  • Kedarnath Singh (2013), Krishna Sobti (2017) and Vinod Kumar Shukla (2024, the 59th Jnanpith Award).
  • That makes 12 winners for Hindi up to the 2024 award (Gulzar's 2023 award is listed for Urdu). The 2025 (60th) award went to Tamil poet Vairamuthu.

Method for unseen passages (अपठित गद्यांश)

  • Read the questions first, so you know what to look for.
  • Then read the passage once carefully. Underline names, numbers and key ideas.
  • Answer only from the passage, not from your own opinion or outside knowledge.
  • For a 'title' (शीर्षक) question, choose the option that covers the main idea of the whole passage, not just one line.
  • For word-meaning questions, read the full sentence around the word. Grammar questions in the passage (synonyms, sandhi, samas) use the same rules as the first lesson.
Quick facts
रामचरितमानस
तुलसीदास (अवधी)
सूरसागर
सूरदास (ब्रजभाषा)
बीजक
कबीर
पद्मावत
मलिक मुहम्मद जायसी
गोदान
प्रेमचंद
कामायनी
जयशंकर प्रसाद
राम की शक्ति पूजा
सूर्यकांत त्रिपाठी 'निराला'
यामा
महादेवी वर्मा (ज्ञानपीठ 1982)
First Hindi Jnanpith
Sumitranandan Pant (1968)
Latest Hindi Jnanpith
Vinod Kumar Shukla (2024 award)

💡 Make pairs of author and work and test yourself both ways: given the book, name the author; given the author, name two books.

📝 5-question quiz on this lesson: enrol free to take it and track your score.

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